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If the researcher uses a probability sample Cheap New York Jets T-Shirts , there will be little ambiguity about the destination of the inferential statement that is made—as long as the researcher clearly defines the population that supplied the study’s subjects. Likewise, there will be little ambiguity associated with the target of inferential statements based upon non-probability samples—as long as the sample is fully described. In each case, however, the inferential process becomes murky if data are collected from less than 100 percent of the individuals (or objects) that make up the sample. In this topic, we consider three frequently seen situations in which inferences are limited because only a portion of the full sample is measured.

• Response Rates
In many studies Cheap New York Jets Hoodies , the research data are collected by sending a survey, questionnaire, or test to a group of people by means of a mailed letter or an e-mail message. Usually, only a portion of the individuals who receive these mailed or e-mailed measurement probes furnishes the researcher with the information that was sought. In many cases, the recipient of the mailed or e-mailed survey Customized New York Jets Jersey , questionnaire, or test simply chooses not to open the envelope or the electronic message (or the attachment to the e-mail message). In other instances, the recipient looks at the research instrument(s) but decides not to take the time to read and respond to the questions. In any event, the term response rate has been coined to indicate the percentage of sample individuals who supply the researcher with the requested information.

• Refusal to Participate
In studies where individuals are asked to participate, some people may decline. Such refusals to participate create the same kind of problem that is brought about by low response rates. In each case Cheap New York Jets Jerseys , valid inferences extend only to individuals similar to those who actually supplied data, not to the larger group of individuals who were asked to supply data. Just as some researchers perform a check to see whether a less-than-optimal response rate affects the generalizability of results, certain investigators compare those who agree to participate with those who decline. If no differences are noted, a stronger case exists for applying inferential statements to the full group of individuals invited to participate (and others who are similar) rather than simply to folks similar to those who supplied data. Researchers who make this kind of comparison in their studies deserve bonus points from you as you critique their investigations. Conversely, you have a right to downgrade your evaluation of a study if the researcher overlooks the possible problems caused by refusals to participate.

• Attrition
In many studies Darryl Roberts Jets Jersey , less than 100 percent of the participants remain in the study from beginning to end. In some instances, this problem arises because the procedures or data-collection activities of the investigation are aversive, boring, or costly to the participant. In other cases, forgetfulness Eric Tomlinson Jets Jersey , schedule changes, or residential relocation explain why certain individuals become dropouts. Regardless of the causal forces that bring about the phenomenon of attrition, it should be clear why attrition can affect the inferential process.
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